PSO figure erectOpen papyrus sheath at rearBase with 2 holes
The Foundation has recently acquired an Egyptian Ptah-Sokar-Osiris statue, also called a papyrus sheath. It has been dated to 990-970 BCE. It is from the estate of an English military family who believed it was brought from Egypt in the early 1900s. It would have stood in a tomb near the mummy of the deceased.
The statue is of wood and, like most of these figures, it is covered in black varnish. Apparently the black colour referenced the darkness of the night as well as the fertile black mud on the banks of the Nile, and in turn these referred to death and coming alive in the afterlife.
The PSO figure wears the atef crown of the god of the afterlife, Osiris. The deceased person becomes an Osiris after death and to make sure he can make the transition, the PSO figure would have contained a papyrus roll with excerpts from the Book of the Dead written in cursive hieroglyphics.
On the wooden base there are two holes: one for the PSO figure and a small one probably for a wooden sculpture of a hawk, which represented Horus, the son of Osiris and Isis.
The PSO figure will be the central feature in the CCCRH Egyptian Exhibition.
Four coins from the CCCRH collection have recently been added to the highly-regarded online database, Roman Provincial Coinage (RPC Online). This post has brief notes on each of the 4 coins that were identified by CCCRH Research Associate, Sebastian Harris. Sebastian arranged for them to be added to the RPC listing and has also prepared the following notes.
Attaleia (Pamphylia), AE20, Attaleia, 161–180 CE
CCCRH recently acquired a bronze coin minted at Attaleia, during the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161–180 CE), previously unpublished in Roman Provincial Coins although cited in some offline reference works. It depicts a diademed bust of Poseidon holding a trident on the obverse, and Nike with the Greek inscription ATTAΛEWN, meaning “of the people of Attaleia,” on the reverse.
Founded by Attalus II of Pergamon in c. 150 BCE, Attaleia was a prominent port-city in what was the Kingdom of Pergamon; a remnant of the larger Seleucid Empire, established by one of Alexander the Great’s successors. Located on the coast of Western Asia Minor, the city originally served as the main naval centre for Attalus’ forces before it became part of the Roman Empire after Attalus’ nephew gave it over to the Romans in 133 BCE. It eventually became the capital of the Roman province of Lycia-Pamphylia and was a significant port for the Byzantine Empire and Crusader Kingdoms.
As one might expect from the city’s proximity to the sea and long history, many coins from Attaleia feature maritime imagery and allusions to the local cults. Poseidon is depicted as a nautical deity, as a protector of sea towns. On the other hand, Nike is a reference to the local cult of Athena Nikephoros (‘bringer of victory’), established under Attalus I. In fact, there was a magnificent two-story temple and festival dedicated to Athena, known as the Nikephoria. It even became the “most important religious celebration in Pergamum in the 2nd century BC,” which further cemented the local worship of the victory goddess.
Allen, R.E. 1983. The Attalid Kingdom: A Constitutional History, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Fant, C.E, and Reddish, M.G. 2003. ‘Attalia,’ in A Guide to Biblical Sites in Greece and Turkey, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 167-172.
Hill, G.F. 1987. A Catalogue of Greek Coins in the British Museum, Lycia, Pamphylia, and Pisidia, London: The Trustees of the British Museum.
Smith, W. 1854. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, illustrated by numerous engravings on wood, London: John Murray.
Commodus (177–192 CE), AE20, Alexandria Troas, c. 184–190 CE
Several years ago, the Foundation acquired an unpublished bronze coin minted at Alexandria Troas, during the sole reign of Commodus (180–192 CE). It depicts a bareheaded, draped, and cuirassed bust of Commodus with the legend COMMODVS ANTONINVS AV (Commodus Antoninus Augustus). On the reverse, it illustrates a cult statue of Apollo Smintheus with a cypress tree and altar, combined with the Latin inscription COL AVG TROAD (“of the Augustan Colony of Troas”).
Alexandria Troas was originally a town called Sigeia, which was enlarged by Antigonus I and later Lysimachus, who named it Alexandria Troas after Alexander the Great in 301 BCE. It served as Rome’s main naval port in north-western Asia Minor during the Roman-Seleucid War (192–188 BCE), and because of their support, Alexandria Troas became an ‘independent’ city. When Augustus was named emperor, he renamed the city to “the Augustan Colony of Troas,” and this remained the city’s name well into the fourth and fifth centuries CE. It is from the time of Commodus (likely during his tour of the Eastern Provinces in 176 CE) until the reign of Gallienus (253–266 CE), that almost all emperors were represented on the city’s coins, a change that had broken the previous period of minimal coins.
Typical of Roman Provincial Coinage, the cult statue of Apollo depicted on the coin’s obverse is the result of a nearby town’s union. Located approximately 30 kilometres south of Alexandria Troas, Hamaxitus was home to the Temple of Apollo Smintheus (“Lord of Mice”); mice were symbolic of Apollo as the god of disease. When the town merged with the larger Alexandria Troas in the second century BC, the local cult grew, and Alexandria began minting coins with symbols related to Apollo Smintheus. This Apollo was depicted in a himation (garment), with a quiver on his shoulder, holding a patera (offering bowl) and bow. The other symbols paired with the statue were the cypress tree (the sacred grove which stood about the temple) and altar (a component of the statue group according to Aelian).
Bresson, A. 2007. ‘Hamaxitos en Troade,’ in J. Dalaison, ed. Espaces et pouvoirs dans l’Antqiuité de l’Anatolie à la Gaule, Hommages à Bernard Rémy, Grenoble: CRHIPA, 139-158.
Vailhé, S. 1913. ‘Troas,’ in C.G. Herbermann, E.A. Pace, C.B. Pallen, T.J. Shahan and J.J. Wynne, eds. The Catholic Enyclopedia, Volume 15: Tournely–Zwirner, New York: The Encyclopedia Press, 63.
Wroth, W.W. 1894. A Catalog of the Greek Coins in the British Museum, Troas, Aeolis and Lesbos, London: The Trustees of the British Museum.
Volusian (251–253 CE), AE29, Colossae, 251–253 CE
Six years ago, CCCRH acquired a previously unpublished bronze coin minted at Colossae, from the rule of Trebonianus Gallus (251–253 CE). It depicts a laureate, draped and cuirassed bust of Volusian with the legend Γ Ο Α Γ ΟΟΥΟΛΟΥϹϹΙΑΝΟϹ Ϲ (Gaius Vibius Afinius Gallus Veldumnianus Volusianus Augustus) on the obverse. On the reverse, it illustrates a cult statue of Artemis of Ephesus with two stags, combined with magistrate’s name and the Greek inscription ΚΟΛΟϹϹΗΝΩΝ (“of the Colossians”)
Considered a “great city in Phrygia” by Herodotus, Colossae had lost its importance to the surrounding cities during the late Hellenistic and early Roman period. During the lifetime of Paul this would have been a minor settlement, and especially so after the earthquakes that devastated the area in the early 60s of the Common Era. Colossae would eventually regain its importance as a Roman city when Emperor Hadrian (r. 117-138 CE) visited it during his own travels, as evidenced by the mass coinage that followed with the regular elections of stephanophoroi (“crown-bearers”). Interestingly, although this coin was minted almost 200 years after the death of Paul, the legend on the reverse of the coin preserves a name that also occurs in the NT letters attributed to Paul: Epaphras (cf Col 1:7; 4:12; and Phlm 23).
A stephanophoros was “a title given to magistrates in some Greek cities who had been granted the honour of being allowed to wear a wreath or garland on public occasions.” They were often one of the leading citizens who would finance the religious festivals and games in provincial Greek cities. The “crown-bearer” written on this coin is ΑΥ ΜΑΡΚΙΑΝΟϹΕΠΑΦΡΑ (Aurelius Marcianus, [son of] Epaphras), who lived during the time of Trebonianus Gallus. The reason for Marcianus depicting the cult statue of Artemis Ephesia on the reverse is two-fold; it commemorates a festival or games honouring Artemis that he financed, and it promotes the cult of Artemis by identifying the Artemis worshipped at Colossae with the Artemis worshipped at Ephesus (the main cult centre in Asia Minor).
Cadwallader, A. 2015. ‘Assessing the Potential of Archaeological Discoveries for the Interpretation of New Testament Texts: The Case of a Gladiator Fragment from Colossae and the Letter to the Colossians,’ in J.R. Harrison and L.L. Welborn, eds. The First Urban Churches 1: Methodological Foundations, Atlanta: SBL Press, 41-66
Fant, C.E, and Reddish, M.G. 2003. ‘Colossae,’ in A Guide to Biblical Sites in Greece and Turkey, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 173-174.
Head, B. 1906. A Catalogue of Greek Coins in the British Museum, Phrygia, London: The Trustees of the British Museum.
Lewis, P.E. May 2016. ‘A New Coin of Colossae,’ TheAustralasian Coin & Banknote Magazine, Accessed 11thNovember 2023, https://tinyurl.com/mryukjm3.
Yamauchi, E.M. 1980. New Testament Cities in Western Asia Minor, Grand Rapids: Baker.
Gallienus (253–268 CE), AE26, Ephesus, 253–260 CE
The Foundation recently acquired an unpublished bronze coin minted at Ephesus, from the joint rule of Valerian and Gallienus (253–260 CE). It depicts a laureate, draped and cuirassed bust of Gallienus with the legend AYT ΠΟ ΛIKIN ΓΑΛΛΙΗΝΟС (Imperator Publius Licinius Gallienus) on the obverse. On the reverse, it illustrates Artemis carrying a long torch, combined with the city’s name and its honorific title, EΦECIΩN Δ NEΩKOΡΩN (“of the Ephesians, four-time neokoros”).
Artemis had been worshipped in Ephesus since the Bronze Age and by many other cities “who also held her in honour above all the gods.” The Ephesian Artemis was originally a mix of several local goddesses native to Anatolia (Asia Minor), who later became associated with the Greek Artemis and Roman Diana. Not only was Ephesus a significant cult centre for Artemis, but it was also the sight of the famous Temple of Artemis (Artemision), which was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. On the coin’s reverse, the torch identifies her as the Greek ArtemisPhosphoros (“Bringer of Light”). This coin type was introduced as a silver denarius under Hadrian (117–138 CE) and was associated with Ephesus during the reign of Severus Alexander (222–235 CE), when the city was promoted to a regional centre for the imperial cult for the third time (neokoros).
Neokoros (‘temple-sweeper’) was a sacred title, often related to the custody of a temple, dedicated to the imperial cult (worship of the emperor and his family). However, Ephesus was unique. As seen in this coin, Ephesus was four-time neokoros, the most of any Greek city (Δ was the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet), but it was dedicated three times to the emperor—Domitian, Hadrian, and Valerian—and once to the Ephesian Artemis. The city had originally wanted to house a temple for the emperors Augustus and Tiberius but was ruled out of the competition “because it was too totally devoted to its chief goddess Artemis.” However, as time passed, they were honoured with the title and, because of their devotion to Artemis and her importance in the region, they received a rare neokoros for Artemis.
Burrell, B. 2004. ‘Ephesos in Ionia (Nero),’ in Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors, Leiden: Brill, 86-99.
Harris, S.L. 2023. ‘Ancient Silver Coinage of Ephesus: The Changing ‘Faces’ of Classical and Hellenistic Coinage,’Ancient Greek & Roman Archaeology & Material Culture eJournal, http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4611571.
Pick, B. 1906. ‘Die neokorien von Ephesos,’ in J. Evans, H.H. Howorth, H.A. Grueber, W.W. Wroth and G.F. Hill, eds. Corolla Numismatica: Numismatic Essays in Honor of Barclay V. Head, London: Oxford University Press, 234-244.
CCCRH recently acquired a brass coin minted at Mytilene on the island of Lesbos during the reign of the Roman emperor Tiberius (14–37 CE). It has the head of Tiberius on the obverse with a Greek inscription meaning “Tiberius, divine Augustus.” On the reverse, there is the bust of Tiberius’ mother, Livia—also known as Julia—with a Greek inscription meaning “Julia, divine Augusta.” On both sides, there are the letters MYTI for “Mytilene.”
The coin provides evidence of the tendency in the eastern parts of the Roman Empire to declare that the emperor was divine, well before the more conservative authorities in Rome would embrace such an affirmation. The Roman Senate had posthumously deified Augustus (the stepfather of Tiberius) at the request of Tiberius. However, Tiberius had refused to nominate Livia for similar honours. Her divine status on the reverse of this coin indicates the city of Mytilene had issued it without the consent of Tiberius. Livia would eventually be deified by her grandson, Claudius.
The identification of the city is another interesting aspect of this coin. When minted around 35 CE, the coin preserved the older form of the city’s name: Mytilene (Μυτιλήνη). A later variant Mitylene (Μιτυλήνη), with the first two vowels reversed—also attested in Josephus, Antiquities, 15.350 & 16:20—is found in Acts 20:14 when describing a visit to the city by St Paul in 57 CE. Josephus was writing late in the first century. The Acts of the Apostles seems to have been partly inspired by the success of Josephus’ project and—for this reason—is dated no earlier than Josephus and perhaps somewhat later. The use of the later form of the city’s name in Acts 20 suggests that the author of the “we” material in Acts (16:10–17; 20:5–15; 21:1–18; 27:1–28:16) might not actually have been a companion of Paul during his travels.
Although this coin is very worn, it demonstrates the importance of primary source material in historical studies.
The Centre for Coins, Culture and Religious History has recently acquired a rare silver tetradrachm issued during the reign of the Roman emperor Tiberius (reigned 14–37 CE). There are only 4 known specimens of this coin and this is the finest of them.
The head of Tiberius is on the obverse. On the reverse, Zeus is seated on a throne holding Nike on his hand. There is no indication on the coin when or where it was minted, but it was most likely somewhere in northern Syria or Cilicia. In The Syro-Phoenician Tetradrachms and their Fractions, published in 2000, Michel and Karin Prieur considered that it was minted in Antioch.
The CCCRH specimen is unusual in that nearly all the Greek letters are visible, and the two monograms on the reverse are clearly shown. On the examples in Prieur (#31), McAlee (#213) and Roman Provincial Coinage (#4110), the monograms were incorrectly identified as M and H. Apart from being very clear in our example, the wording of the Greek inscription on this coin is particularly significant.
The obverse legend reads ΤΙΒΕΡΙΟΥ ΚΑΙΣΑΡΟΣ ΘΕΟΥ ΣΕΒΑΣΤΟΥ, while on the reverse we find: ΥΙΟΥ ΣΕΒΑΣΤΟΝ. This translates into English as “of Tiberius Caesar, divine Augustus / son of Augusti.” Presumably, the Augusti were Octavian and Livia, but the legend clearly states that Tiberius was divine.
While the imperial cult had developed rapidly in the eastern provinces of the early Roman Empire, such claims to divine status would have been objectionable to the Jewish diaspora communities in Antioch, Tarsus or other major cities in the area. Indeed, the Maccabean Revolt (c. 165 BCE) was triggered at least in part by the harsh enforcement of similar claims by the Seleucid king, Antiochus IV Epiphanes.
It is unknown whether Jewish objections to this coin of Tiberius influenced Roman policy, but, significantly, the word ΘΕΟΥ (god) is absent from similar coins issued by his immediate successors: Caligula (37–41 CE) and Claudius (41–54 CE). Due to its date during the life of Jesus (who was crucified in 30 CE), its provenance (Antioch) and its explicit attribution of divinity to Tiberius, this coin illustrates the political theology of the Roman Empire promoted on coins such as the so-called “Tribute Penny” shown to Jesus in Mark 12:15 and parallels.
The Australasian Coin and Banknote Magazine ceased publication in November 2022. The masthead has since been acquired by Imperial Group and will be relaunched in March 2023 as The Australian Coin Review (ACR).
The two final articles contributed to CAB by Dr Peter Lewis are now available on the CCCRH website:
